AAU Student Projects is unavailable between June 15th 1.30pm and 17th 1.30pm due to planned system maintenance. The projects cannot be downloaded during this period.
AAU Student Projects - visit Aalborg University's student projects portal
A master's thesis from Aalborg University
Book cover


Hardship Under the CISG in Light of Its Interpretive Framework and the Limits of Article 79

Translated title

Hardship under CISG i lyset af konventionens fortolkningsramme og grænserne for artikel 79

Author

Term

4. term

Education

Publication year

2026

Submitted on

Abstract

This thesis examines whether, and to what extent, hardship can be recognized under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). The starting point is that the CISG does not explicitly regulate hardship, even though unforeseen changes often arise in international trade and can upset the contractual balance. Hardship refers to situations where performance is still possible but has become significantly more burdensome due to changed circumstances. It differs from force majeure, which concerns cases where performance has become impossible. This distinction matters because the CISG is traditionally seen as addressing impossibility, while it is more controversial whether the Convention also covers performance that has become very difficult or costly. The thesis focuses on Article 79 and the meaning of “impediment.” A narrow reading limits the provision to impossibility, while a broader reading allows substantial economic hardship to qualify for exemption. There are arguments both for and against including hardship within Article 79’s scope. It then considers whether the absence of a clear hardship rule should be treated as a “gap” under Article 7(2). The question is whether this is an internal gap that can be filled by the Convention’s general principles (such as good faith and fair risk allocation), or an external gap to be addressed under applicable national law. The analysis indicates that these principles can support reading hardship into the CISG in some cases, but also highlights the lack of consensus. The thesis also examines how the so-called threshold under Article 79 applies to hardship—that is, how great a burden a party must bear before exemption may be granted. The CISG sets no percentage, and case law is limited and partly contradictory. Assessment therefore depends on a holistic evaluation, with particular weight on foreseeability, risk allocation, and the nature of the changes. Overall, the CISG contains no clear, uniform regulation of hardship. The concept can be read into the Convention to some extent via Article 7, but the legal position remains uncertain and marked by divergent views in relation to Article 79. In practice, outcomes depend on how the Convention is interpreted and applied.

Specialet undersøger, om og i hvilket omfang hardship kan anerkendes inden for FN’s konvention om internationale køb (CISG). Udgangspunktet er, at CISG ikke udtrykkeligt regulerer hardship, selv om uforudsete ændringer ofte opstår i international handel og kan forrykke balancen i en kontrakt. Hardship forstås som situationer, hvor opfyldelse stadig er mulig, men er blevet væsentligt mere byrdefuld på grund af ændrede omstændigheder. Det adskiller sig fra force majeure, der angår tilfælde, hvor opfyldelse er blevet umulig. Denne sondring er vigtig, fordi CISG traditionelt opfattes som rettet mod umulighed, mens det er mere omstridt, om konventionen også kan rumme meget vanskelig eller dyr opfyldelse. Specialet analyserer især artikel 79 og betydningen af ordet “impediment” (hindring). En snæver fortolkning begrænser bestemmelsen til umulighed, mens en bredere fortolkning åbner for, at væsentlig økonomisk byrde kan give fritagelse. Der er således argumenter både for og imod at lade hardship falde ind under artikel 79. Dernæst behandles, om fraværet af en klar hardship-regel kan betragtes som et ”gap” efter artikel 7(2). Spørgsmålet er, om det er et internt gap, der kan udfyldes med konventionens generelle principper (fx god tro og rimelig risikofordeling), eller et eksternt gap, som må håndteres efter national ret. Analysen peger på muligheden for at inddrage disse principper, men fremhæver også uenigheden på området. Specialet ser desuden på, hvordan den såkaldte offergrænse i artikel 79 kan nås ved hardship – altså hvor stor en byrde en part kan pålægges, før fritagelse kommer på tale. CISG angiver ingen procentsats, og retspraksis er begrænset og delvis modstridende. Vurderingen beror derfor på en konkret helhedsbedømmelse, hvor især forudsigelighed, risikofordeling og karakteren af de ændrede omstændigheder vægtes. Konklusionen er, at CISG ikke indeholder en klar og ensartet regulering af hardship. Begrebet kan til en vis grad fortolkes ind via artikel 7, men retstilstanden er usikker og præget af divergerende opfattelser i relation til artikel 79. I praksis afhænger resultatet af den konkrete fortolkning og anvendelse af konventionens regler.

[This abstract has been rewritten with the help of AI based on the project's original abstract]